# AILang — design decisions This document records the core decisions for AILang. It is my contract with myself across future iterations. Prefer cuts over growth. ## Goal AILang is a programming language for LLM authors. It compiles to LLVM IR. Performance: native, no GC for the MVP. Optimised for: - **Machine readability** over human ergonomics. The source is structured. - **Local reasoning.** Every definition carries its full type and effects. - **Provability.** Pure core language, explicit effects, optional refinements. - **Robustness against hallucinations.** Symbols are hashable; tools can verify existence without spending context window. ## Project ecosystem AILang is not just a language but an ecosystem. The language on its own is only valuable when its surroundings make it usable, checkable, and extensible for its target user (LLM authors). The repo therefore contains several equally important components — none of them optional, all of them evolving in lockstep with the language: - **Language core** (`crates/ailang-core`, `crates/ailang-check`, `crates/ailang-codegen`): AST, type system, codegen. - **CLI** (`crates/ail`): toolchain for tooling consumers — `manifest`, `describe`, `deps`, `check`, `build`, etc., preferably with `--json` for machine consumption. - **Examples** (`examples/`): canonical `.ail.json` programs. They are specification anchors, not demos — the E2E suite hangs off them. - **Agents** (`agents/`): specialised sub-prompts (implementer, architect, tester, debugger) that form the project's own LLM tooling. They are a versioned part of the repo. See `agents/README.md`. - **Docs** (`docs/`): DESIGN.md (what and why), JOURNAL.md (history). - **Tests**: unit tests per crate plus E2E in `crates/ail/tests/e2e.rs`. Every new compiler path needs a test, otherwise the feature does not count as done. When the language grows, these components grow with it. New tools that strengthen the LLM tooling (e.g. `ail diff`, IR snapshot diffs, new agents) explicitly belong in the ecosystem inventory of this section and are added here as soon as they are established. ## Project language: English All in-tree content is written in English: source code (identifiers, comments, string literals, CLI help), design documents, the journal, agent prompts, READMEs, commit messages, examples, and `CLAUDE.md`. The live conversation between user and me stays German for ergonomic reasons; everything that lands in git is English. This keeps diffs and tooling output uniform and matches the audience for AILang (LLM authors), for whom English is the default. ## Decision 1: source = data, not text A module is a JSON object with a fixed schema. There is no parser for free-form text. Typos in identifiers turn into hash-lookup errors that the compiler proposes a fix for directly. A textual form exists (`.ail`, S-expression-like), but only as a bidirectional projection of the JSON form. It is intended for human reviews and diffs. **Canonical format:** `.ail.json` with deterministic key order. ## Decision 2: content-addressed definitions Every top-level definition has a `hash` value (BLAKE3 over canonical JSON without the `hash` field itself). References between definitions go primarily by name — names are for readability. The hash is the canonical identity. Advantages: - Refactoring by adding new defs, not by in-place change. Old versions stay callable until manually removed. - Caching of typecheck results and codegen per hash. - Diffs show exactly which def has changed. ## Decision 3: pure core language + algebraic effects The default is total, pure functions. Effects are declared as a set in the function type: `(Int) -> Int ![IO]`. The effect set is row-polymorphic (`![IO | r]`). In the MVP only the effects `IO` and `Diverge` (for infinite loops) are wired up. This is the most important LLM property: when I read a function, I can trust its signature without reading the body. ## Decision 4: Hindley-Milner + optional refinements MVP: HM with let-polymorphism. All types are inferable, but at the top level they must always be explicitly annotated (for local reasoning). Later: refinement annotations that escalate to SMT. `(i: Int | i >= 0)`. They are reserved in the AST from the start, but in the MVP they are simply passed through as opaque strings. ## Decision 5: emit LLVM IR as text Instead of `inkwell` or `llvm-sys`: AILang produces `.ll` files as strings and hands them to `clang` for linking. Rationale: - The LLVM IR text syntax is largely stable across versions. - No build dependency on a specific libllvm version. - Generated code is trivially inspectable, which makes debugging much easier. - An LLM can read the generated IR directly, which is harder with opaque library calls. Trade-off: no inline optimisations through the LLVM API. We rely on `clang -O2` as the standard pipeline. ## Decision 6: authoring surface (Iter 14b) **Status: shipped.** Form (A) was chosen in Iter 14b and implemented as the `ailang-surface` crate (parser + printer) in Iter 14c. Form-A is gated against drift by `ailang-surface/tests/round_trip.rs`, which parses every `.ailx` fixture, prints it back, re-parses, and demands canonical-byte equality. In Iter 15e, `ail render` and both branches of `ail describe` were rewired to use `ailang_surface::print`, making form (A) the **sole** text projection of a module — the legacy non-round-tripping pretty-printer code in `pretty.rs` was deleted in the same iter, leaving only diagnostic helpers (`type_to_string`, `pattern_to_string`, `manifest`) public. The rest of this section records the *why* of Decision 6 for the audit trail; the constraints listed below describe the surface as shipped. ### Why this is opening up Iters 1 through 14a authored everything as raw `*.ail.json`. That worked for 17 fixture files (each ≤ 60 LOC of JSON) but does not scale. Two breaking signals: 1. The token-economy cost of the JSON-AST is massive: a single integer literal `1` is encoded as `{"t":"lit","lit":{"kind":"int","value":1}}` — ~38 tokens of structural overhead per bit of semantics. For a stdlib in the 200–500 def range this displaces real attention budget. 2. JSON-AST authoring exposes a class of errors (wrong field names, silently-accepted extra fields under `#[serde(default)]`, inconsistent ctor casing) that surface only at load time. The schema is correct-by-construction in storage but **error-prone in authoring**. Decision 1 anticipated this: it says a textual form exists "as a bidirectional projection of the JSON form." The pretty-printer already emits S-expression-style text (see `crates/ailang-core/src/pretty.rs`). What is missing is the inverse direction — text → AST. Decision 6 adds that inverse as **one** authoring projection alongside the existing pretty-printer; the JSON-AST remains the source of truth. ### Architectural pin: data structure is the source of truth The textual surface is **not** a replacement for the JSON-AST. It is one projection among potentially many. Concretely: - The JSON-AST keeps its role as the canonical, hashable, content- addressed representation of a module. All hashing, content- addressing, cross-module references, and typecheck/codegen input flow through the JSON-AST. **No new hashable form is introduced.** - The textual surface (form A, this Decision) is the **AI authoring projection**: optimised for me producing programs token-efficiently and for foreign LLMs producing programs from a spec. It is not optimised for human authors and does not need to be human-pleasant. - Future projections are explicitly anticipated: a visual / graphical front-end is a plausible second projection for human review and inspection (display being the one case where non-AI eyes matter). The architecture leaves room: any producer of well-formed `ailang-core::ast::Module` values is a valid front-end. - **No human is expected to author AILang seriously.** Authoring is AI work. Display and verification, by contrast, are concerns where human-facing alternatives may be useful — and which can therefore layer their own projections on top of the same AST without touching the surface or the core. In code terms: `ailang-core` owns the AST. `ailang-surface` (new in Iter 14c) is one producer/consumer pair: text-form-A → AST → text- form-A. A hypothetical `ailang-visual` would be a different producer of the same AST. `ailang-check` and `ailang-codegen` consume only the AST and remain projection-agnostic. ### Constraints (hard, in priority order) 1. **Formalizable for a foreign LLM.** The grammar must fit in an EBNF/PEG spec of ≤ 30 productions. A model that has never seen AILang must be able to read the spec and produce conforming source zero-shot. Rules out: precedence between binary operators, semantic indentation, maximal-munch lexing, context-sensitive reductions. 2. **AST-isomorphic.** Every surface form maps to exactly one AST shape. Round-trip surface → AST → canonical JSON → AST → surface is the identity (modulo formatting). Hashes computed via the round-tripped JSON must equal hashes of the same module written directly in JSON. 3. **No external symbols.** ASCII only. No Greek (`∀`), no arrows (`→`), no subscripts. Reasoning: I substitute mojibake for non-ASCII characters under context pressure; foreign LLMs vary in how they tokenize Unicode. 4. **No precedence.** Either everything is parenthesized, or there are no infix operators. Prefer the latter — `add(x, 1)` over `x + 1`. Removes a fail mode for both me and foreign LLMs. 5. **No semantic indentation.** Block structure expressed by paired delimiters or terminator tokens. Indentation is informational only; the parser ignores it. 6. **One construct per token-list.** Every AST node corresponds to exactly one parenthesized form (or atom). No "sometimes you can omit the parens" rules. 7. **AST surface stays frozen.** The surface adapts to the AST, not the other way around. We do not change the JSON schema or invalidate hashes to make the surface prettier. ### Candidate notations (same `map` encoded in each) The reference target — the polymorphic `map` from `examples/list_map_poly.ail.json`: ``` data List a where Nil | Cons a (List a) fn map : forall a b. ((a) -> b, List a) -> List b = \f xs. match xs of Nil -> Nil | Cons h t -> Cons(f(h), map(f, t)) ``` #### (A) S-expression with fully-tagged AST nodes ``` (module list_map_poly (data List (vars a) (ctor Nil) (ctor Cons a (con List a))) (fn inc (type (fn-type (params (con Int)) (ret (con Int)))) (params x) (body (app + x 1))) (fn map (type (forall (vars a b) (fn-type (params (fn-type (params a) (ret b)) (con List a)) (ret (con List b))))) (params f xs) (body (match xs (case (pat-ctor Nil) (term-ctor List Nil)) (case (pat-ctor Cons h t) (term-ctor List Cons (app f h) (app map f t))))))) ``` Grammar core (3-rule lexical layer + ~25 named-form productions): ``` sexpr ::= atom | "(" sexpr* ")" atom ::= integer | string | ident ident ::= any maximal non-whitespace, non-paren run that is not a recognised integer or string literal. ``` The lexer recognises one delimiter (`(` / `)`) and whitespace. Every other maximal token is classified post-hoc: - All-digit run with optional leading `-` → integer atom. - `"`-delimited run → string atom. - Otherwise → ident. Consequence: operators like `+`, `==`, `<=`, `**`, qualified names like `io/print_int`, and cross-module references like `std_list.map` are all single ident tokens with no special lex rule. The only reserved tokens are `(`, `)`, and whitespace. Bool literals (`true`, `false`) and unit (`(lit-unit)`) are disambiguated by parser context, not by lex. Every AST node form has a unique head keyword (`module`, `data`, `fn`, `forall`, `fn-type`, `con`, `var`, `app`, `lam`, `match`, `case`, `pat-ctor`, `term-ctor`, `do`, `seq`, ...). A bare atom in a positional slot (e.g. inside `(con List a)` second position) is a name reference whose **sort** is determined by the parent slot: - inside `(con NAME args...)` second-and-later positions → type expression. Bare atom there ⇒ `Type::Var { name }`. - inside `(app HEAD args...)` first position ⇒ `Term::Var`. - inside `(pat-ctor CTOR fields...)` field positions ⇒ `Pattern::Var`. - inside `(case PAT BODY)` second position ⇒ term. There is **no lexical case rule**. To construct a value with a ctor, write `(term-ctor TypeName CtorName args...)`. To match against one, write `(pat-ctor CtorName fields...)`. Capitalised identifiers carry no special meaning to the parser. This rules out a class of silent errors ("I forgot to capitalise `Cons` and it parsed as a function call"). **Pros:** smallest formal grammar of any candidate (the lexical core is 3 rules; the named-form productions are uniform — every node a tagged list). Foreign-LLM bar lowest. Round-trip with the existing pretty-printer is a refactor of `pretty.rs` to emit this tagged form, plus a new parser. **Cons:** paren density is high. `(forall (vars a b) (fn-type ...))` has more visual nesting than the current pretty-printer's `forall a. (...) -> ...`. Verbosity is ~2× JSON for the same node when measured in characters, but ~8× shorter in lines (the existing JSON `box.ail.json` of 160 lines becomes ~20 lines in this form). #### (B) Indented record-style with explicit terminators ``` module std_list data List(a): Nil Cons(a, List(a)) end fn map: type: forall a b. fn(fn(a) -> b, List(a)) -> List(b) params: f, xs body: match xs: Nil => Nil Cons(h, t) => Cons(f(h), map(f, t)) end end ``` Grammar core (~20–30 productions): module-level (def/data/end), type sub-grammar (forall, fn, con, var), term sub-grammar (lam, match, ctor, app, lit, var, seq), pattern sub-grammar. **Pros:** higher information density per line, closer to mainstream ML/Haskell shape. **Cons:** four sub-grammars instead of one. `forall a b. fn(...)` keeps a pseudo-precedence (`->` binds tighter than the outer `fn(...)` wrapper). Foreign-LLM bar higher. #### (C) Pretty-printer-as-source Use exactly the format `pretty::module` already emits, plus a parser that accepts it. The existing pretty-printer's quirks (`::` for type-of, `[params]` for fn-params, `` for type-args, `forall a. ...`, `!IO`, `()` ambiguous between unit-arg-list and empty-form) become the spec. **Pros:** zero churn — the existing pretty-printer is already the spec; only the inverse is missing. Round-trip is the identity by construction. **Cons:** the existing format mixes four mini-dialects (s-expr at term level, ML-shape at type level, square brackets for params, `<>` for type args). Formalising it crisply is harder than designing a uniform form from scratch. ### First choice and rollback plan **Try (A) first.** Reasoning: constraint 1 (formalizable) outweighs constraint readability. (A) has a 3-rule core grammar with one lexical disambiguation rule. (B) doubles the rule count and re-introduces a soft form of precedence (`->` inside `forall`). (C) is tempting because it is zero-design but the resulting spec is visibly heterogeneous, which is exactly what constraint 1 was meant to rule out. If implementing (A) reveals that paren density actively hurts my authoring (measurable: I make more wrong-paren errors than the JSON-AST shape produced before), roll back and try (C). (B) stays on the shelf for a future iter only if both fail. ### Implementation outline (Iter 14c onwards, not done in 14b) - `crates/ailang-surface` — new crate. **Strictly additive.** PEG parser produces existing `ailang-core::ast` types. No new AST nodes, no schema changes, no new hashable form. Pretty-printer for form (A) lives here too (the round-trip is the contract). - `ailang-check`, `ailang-codegen` are **not modified**. They continue to consume `ailang-core::ast::Module` values regardless of which projection produced them. - Round-trip test: for every `examples/*.ail.json`, parse the corresponding hand-written `*.ailx`, canonicalise, and assert hash-equivalence to the original. Hash equivalence is the truth check; the surface ships only if every fixture round-trips identically. - CLI: `ail parse -o `. Symmetric to existing `ail render`. **`.ail.json` remains a first-class input** to every existing subcommand; the parser is a producer, not a gatekeeper. - Iter 14d: stdlib (`std_list`, `std_maybe`, ...) authored in form (A) from day one **because that is the AI authoring projection**, not because JSON authoring is forbidden. The resulting `.ail.json` is what tests and downstream tools see. ### What this Decision deliberately does not do - It does not promote form (A) to the source of truth. Form (A) is one projection; the JSON-AST stays canonical. - It does not foreclose visual or graphical front-ends. The crate layout (`core` owns AST; `surface`/`visual`/... are siblings) reserves that lane. - It does not remove `.ail.json` as input. Every existing CLI subcommand (`check`, `render`, `describe`, `emit-ir`, `build`, `run`, `manifest`, `deps`, `diff`, `workspace`, `builtins`) keeps its current `.ail.json` interface. ### Form refinements during Iter 14c implementation Two productions in the original 14b sketch had to be widened during implementation to round-trip the existing AST faithfully. Captured here for the spec record: 1. **`lam-term` carries types and effects.** The AST's `Term::Lam` stores parallel `params`, `param_tys`, `ret_ty`, and `effects` fields. The 14b sketch had only names. The implemented form is ``` lam-term ::= "(" "lam" "(" "params" typed-param* ")" "(" "ret" type ")" effects-clause? body-attr ")" typed-param ::= "(" "typed" ident type ")" ``` This keeps the no-precedence / one-construct-per-token-list invariants and adds no new lexical rules. 2. **`import-clause` admits an optional alias.** The AST's `Import.alias` is `Option`; the original sketch only supported the `None` case. The implemented form is ``` import-clause ::= "(" "import" ident ("as" ident)? ")" ``` `as` is a bare ident token in this position; no special lexical rule is needed. Neither change extends the grammar's rule budget meaningfully: the 30-production ceiling of constraint 1 is intact (the parser implements ~28 named productions). All 17 `examples/*.ail.json` fixtures round-trip identically through `print → parse → canonical JSON`; the three hand-written `.ailx` exhibits parse to canonical JSON identical to their corresponding `.ail.json` files. 3. **Tail-call surface (Iter 14e).** Decision 8 ships two new productions, both positional analogues of their non-tail counterparts. Their result terms set `Term::App.tail = true` / `Term::Do.tail = true`; the typechecker's `verify_tail_positions` pass enforces that the marker is only used in tail position. ``` tail-app-term ::= "(" "tail-app" term term+ ")" tail-do-term ::= "(" "tail-do" ident term* ")" ``` Production count after Iter 14e: ~30, still inside the 30-rule constraint-1 budget. No new lexical rule (`tail-app` / `tail-do` are bare ident tokens; no special casing). ## Decision 7: redundancy removal — `Term::If` is not a primitive **Status: REVERTED in Iter 14g.** This decision was made on shaky grounds — applying CLAUDE.md's "no redundancies" rule to a case that turned out to be primitive control flow, not redundancy. The post-removal match-on-Bool form (3× the tokens, asymmetric `pat-wild` for the false case) was worse for token economy and worse for the natural shape of the language. `Term::If` is restored. The text below is preserved for the audit trail. `Term::If { cond, then, else_ }` is semantically a subset of `Term::Match` on `Bool`. Per CLAUDE.md the language must contain no redundancies; two AST nodes for the same operation produces an authoring decision with no semantic content and an extra codegen path. Iter 14d removes `Term::If`. Migration shape on the JSON side: {"t":"if","cond":C,"then":A,"else":B} → {"t":"match","scrutinee":C, "arms":[ {"pat":{"p":"lit","lit":{"kind":"bool","value":true}},"body":A}, {"pat":{"p":"wild"},"body":B}]} The wildcard arm satisfies the typechecker's `primitive-needs-wildcard` rule. A future iter may upgrade the exhaustiveness check to recognise the `true`+`false` arm pair as covering Bool without a wildcard; until then, wildcard is the canonical migration target. No schema version bump (no third-party consumes `ailang/v0`). Hash invalidation for the three migrated fixtures (`sum`, `sort`, `max3`) is intentional; the new hashes become the new identity. ## Decision 8: explicit, verified tail calls For an LLM author, recursion is the natural iteration form (`\n. if n == 0 then () else loop(n-1)` is what I reach for, not a `for`-loop). Without a tail-call guarantee, every recursive program has a silent stack-depth ceiling that no compile-time diagnostic warns about. That is exactly the class of correctness hazard the language exists to eliminate. Solution: explicit, verified tail calls. - **AST.** `Term::App { fn, args, tail: bool }` and `Term::Do { op, args, tail: bool }` gain a `tail` flag, serde-defaulting to `false` so existing fixtures load with `tail: false` and their hashes stay bit-identical. - **Typecheck.** A new pass `verify_tail_positions(fn_body)` runs after the main type-check. It walks the body with an `is_tail_context: bool` threaded down. The flag is `true` at the start, `true` for the body of every `Term::Match` arm, `true` for the right operand of `Term::Seq`, `true` for the body of `Term::Let`, `true` for the body of `Term::Lam` (each Lam opens its own tail scope). The flag is `false` for: args of any `App`/`Do`/`Ctor`, scrutinee of `Match`, left of `Seq`, condition of `Let`-bound expression. When the walker visits an `App { tail: true }` or `Do { tail: true }`, the flag must be `true` at that visit; otherwise emit diagnostic `tail-call-not-in-tail-position`. - **Codegen.** Emit `musttail call` (LLVM IR) for marked calls instead of plain `call`. LLVM rejects at IR-verification time if the call cannot physically be a tail call (calling convention mismatch, signature divergence, etc.). The reject surfaces as a hard build error, not a silent runtime surprise. - **Form (A).** Two new keywords: `tail-app`, `tail-do`. Productions are positional analogues of `app`/`do` with `tail: true` set on the resulting term. EBNF gains 2 lines; total production count goes from ~28 to ~30, still inside the constraint-1 budget. **What this does NOT promise.** Per the 14d tail-call survey, many existing recursive calls are *not* in tail position because they are arguments to constructor calls (e.g. `Cons (f h) (map f t)`). 14e adds annotation + verification; it does **not** add a CPS transform or accumulator-form rewrite. Programs whose recursion is constructor-blocked will continue to be stack-bounded by recursion depth. The canonical authoring pattern in such cases is to write the accumulator-form variant (`map_acc`, `fold_left`, etc.) explicitly. The stdlib (15a onward) ships both forms where relevant. The 14d migration of existing fixtures will be partial: only `print_list`-style terminal recursions get marked. The constructor-blocked recursions in `map`, `sort`, `insert` remain unmarked — they cannot benefit from `musttail` without a source-level rewrite. ## Decision 9: memory management — Boehm conservative GC Through Iter 14e, every ADT box, lambda env, and closure pair was allocated with bare `malloc` and never freed. That worked for the 17 test fixtures (all small, all short-lived) but is incompatible with any real workload — a stdlib `fold` over a million-element list would leak a million boxes. The "Goal" section's "no GC for the MVP" framing predates the parameterised-ADT pipeline (Iter 13) and the explicit-recursion expectation (Iter 14e); both make a collector necessary. **Choice: Boehm-Demers-Weiser conservative GC.** The simplest working option: - Replace `malloc(...)` with `GC_malloc(...)` in every IR site (currently `lower_ctor`'s ADT box, `lower_lambda`'s env block and closure pair). - Replace the IR-level `declare ptr @malloc(i64)` with `declare ptr @GC_malloc(i64)`. - Add `-lgc` to the `clang` link command (in `crates/ail/src/main.rs`'s `Build` / `Run` paths). - No language-level change. No AST change. No schema change. Rationale: - **Mature.** Boehm has been the default conservative GC for decades. Linux distros ship it as `libgc` / `libgc-dev` / `gc` (Arch). - **No language work.** Conservative scan of the C stack handles AILang's stack frames without LLVM stack-map infrastructure (which is its own multi-iter design). - **Single-iter integration.** Lift-and-shift of the four allocation sites; all existing tests must still pass with identical output. Trade-offs accepted: - **Conservative over-retention.** A user-supplied `Int` field whose value happens to coincide with a heap address will pin that allocation. In practice, vanishingly rare for typical values; survivable. - **Pause time non-deterministic.** Boehm uses stop-the-world mark-sweep. For LLM-author-written stdlib code at MVP scale, pause times are not the bottleneck. - **Build-time dependency.** `libgc` must be installed on the build host. Users without it get a link-time error from clang, not a silent failure. A future iter may layer a per-fn-arena optimisation on top: when a fn's return type contains no boxed ADT, ADT boxes allocated inside that fn cannot escape, so an arena freed at fn return is sound by construction (per the 14e GC notes). That requires escape analysis, the corresponding AST/IR plumbing, and is its own design pass. Boehm-everything is the floor; arena is an optimisation above it. ### Per-fn arena via stack `alloca` (Iter 17a) Iter 17a layers exactly that optimisation, in its simplest form. `ailang-codegen` runs an escape-analysis pre-pass over every fn body (and every lifted lambda thunk body); allocations the pass proves do not outlive the fn frame are lowered to LLVM `alloca` instead of `@GC_malloc`. Allocations that may escape continue to use `@GC_malloc`. The Boehm collector is still linked and unchanged; this is purely an optimisation above the floor. **Allocation mechanism: LLVM `alloca`** (not a heap arena). Stack allocation matches the "freed at fn return" lifetime exactly, needs no malloc/free pair, and integrates with LLVM's existing optimiser (mem2reg / SROA may further promote the alloca'd box to registers if the box is small and its uses are simple). No new runtime is introduced; no language-level change; no AST or schema change. **Escape rule (conservative).** A `Term::Ctor` or `Term::Lam` allocation is non-escaping iff (1) it is the value of a `Term::Let { name = X, value = ALLOC, body = B }`, and (2) the body `B` does not let any value derived from `X` flow past the fn frame. "Derived from" follows two propagation rules: - A `Term::Match` whose scrutinee is a `Var` referring to a tainted name propagates taint to every pattern-bound name in every arm. (Pattern bindings hold field projections of the scrutinee, which live inside the same allocation.) - A `Term::Let { name = Y, value = Var(t), ... }` where `t` is tainted makes `Y` tainted in the let's body. A tainted name "escapes" if it appears in any of: the tail position of `B`, the arg list of any `Term::App` / `Term::Do`, the field list of a `Term::Ctor`, or the free-var capture set of a `Term::Lam`. The closure-pair-callee position of `Term::App` where the callee is a bare `Var` to the tainted name is NOT an escape (calling locally is fine). **What this is not.** Not a region-inference system. Not flow-sensitive within an arm. Not field-sensitive (pattern bindings are tainted wholesale). Precision can be improved later; correctness is the priority for this iter. A pessimistic answer (claiming an allocation escapes when it does not) only loses optimisation, never correctness. **Codegen integration.** Three sites in `ailang-codegen/src/lib.rs`: - `lower_ctor` — ADT box. - `lower_lambda` env block (when there are captures). - `lower_lambda` closure pair (always 16 bytes). Each site queries the per-fn `non_escape: BTreeSet` (raw pointer addresses of `Term::Ctor` / `Term::Lam` AST nodes flagged as non-escaping). On a hit the emitter writes `alloca i8, i64 , align 8`; on a miss it writes `call ptr @GC_malloc(i64 )`. The rest of the lowering (tag store, field stores, closure-pair packing) is identical. The closure-pair and its env share an escape verdict — they have parallel lifetimes. If the closure pair is non-escaping, the env is too. ## Mangling scheme (Iter 5c) All AILang functions are mangled to `@ail__` — even in the single-module case. Constants likewise (`@ail__`). Global string literals carry a short hint for readability: `@.str___` (e.g. `@.str_sum_fmt_int_0`). The entry point is a `define i32 @main()` trampoline (C / LLVM ABI) that calls `@ail__main()`. `source_filename` exists exactly once per workspace and carries the entry-module name (`.ail`). ## Convention: qualified cross-module references (Iter 5b) Cross-module calls use **no** new AST node. Instead, a `Term::Var { name }` with exactly one dot in the name is a qualified reference: `.`. - `` is an import alias (`import { module: "X", as: "" }`) or, when imported without an alias, the module name itself. - `` is the name of a top-level definition in the target module. - Def names MUST NOT contain a dot — the typechecker reports `invalid-def-name` with `ctx: { "reason": "contains-dot" }`. - The workspace loader (Iter 5a) finds all reachable modules; the typechecker (Iter 5b, `check_workspace`) resolves dotted names through the import map. Diagnostic codes: `unknown-module` (prefix not imported), `unknown-import` (module found, def not). Hash stability: no new AST node, no renamed fields — all previous module hashes stay bit-identical. ## Data model (MVP) ### Module ```jsonc { "schema": "ailang/v0", "name": "", "imports": [{ "module": "", "as": "" }], "defs": [Def...] } ``` ### Def `kind ∈ { "fn", "type", "effect", "const" }`. In the MVP only `fn` and `const`. ```jsonc { "kind": "fn", "name": "", "type": Type, "params": [""...], "body": Term, "doc": "" } ``` ### Term (expression) ```jsonc { "t": "lit", "lit": { "kind": "int" | "bool" | "unit", "value": ... } } { "t": "var", "name": "" } { "t": "app", "fn": Term, "args": [Term...] } { "t": "let", "name": "", "value": Term, "body": Term } { "t": "if", "cond": Term, "then": Term, "else": Term } { "t": "do", "op": "/", "args": [Term...] } { "t": "ctor", "type": "", "ctor": "", "args": [Term...] } { "t": "match", "scrutinee": Term, "arms": [Arm...] } { "t": "lam", "params": [""...], "paramTypes": [Type...], "retType": Type, "effects": [""...], "body": Term } { "t": "seq", "lhs": Term, "rhs": Term } ``` In the MVP, `do` is only a direct call to a built-in effect op (no handler). A `lam` term constructs an anonymous function value; free variables of its body are captured from the enclosing scope (see Iter 8 closure conversion in JOURNAL). A `seq` term evaluates `lhs` for its effects (its result must be Unit) and yields `rhs`'s value — equivalent to `let _ = lhs in rhs`. ### Type ```jsonc { "k": "con", "name": "Int" } { "k": "con", "name": "Bool" } { "k": "con", "name": "Unit" } { "k": "fn", "params": [Type...], "ret": Type, "effects": ["IO"...] } { "k": "var", "name": "a" } { "k": "forall", "vars": ["a"...], "body": Type } ``` ## Pipeline ``` .ail.json ─┐ ├─ load + validate schema ├─ resolve names + assign hashes ├─ desugar (AST → AST, Iter 16a) ├─ typecheck (HM, effect rows) ├─ lift_letrecs (post-typecheck AST → AST, Iter 16b.3) ├─ lower to MIR (SSA-like, named SSA values) ├─ emit LLVM IR (.ll) └─ clang -O2 *.ll -o binary (links libgc for @GC_malloc) ``` The **desugar** pass (`ailang-core::desugar::desugar_module`) runs before typecheck and codegen in every entry point of `ailang-check` and `ailang-codegen`. It is a pure AST → AST rewriter — currently only flattens nested constructor patterns (16a), but is the chosen home for any future surface-smoothing rewrites that should not bloat the core AST or the backends. **Critical invariant:** `CheckedModule.symbols` in the `check` entry point continues to hash from the *original* on-disk module, not the desugared one, so `ail diff` and `ail manifest` report identities that match the canonical JSON the user is editing. The **lift_letrecs** pass (`ailang-check::lift_letrecs`, Iter 16b.3) runs **after** typecheck and **before** codegen, but only on the `build` / `run` paths — the `check` subcommand stops at typecheck and never sees a lifted module. It eliminates every `Term::LetRec` that the desugar pass left in place (the case where at least one capture is `Term::Let`-bound, so its type is only knowable after inference). The output is a module with synthetic `$lr_N` top-level fns appended, ready for codegen. Synthetic FnDefs added by this pass do **not** appear in `CheckedModule.symbols` — same invariant as the 16b.2 lifts in desugar. ## CLI ``` ail check — loads, validates, typechecks ail manifest — table: name :: type !effects [hash] ail describe — detail of a definition (form-A body) ail render — JSON-AST → form-A text (exact inverse of `parse`) ail parse — form-A text → canonical JSON-AST ail deps — list cross-module references ail diff — content-addressed def-level diff ail workspace — list all modules transitively reachable from entry (`--json` for machine output; `manifest --workspace` and `diff --workspace` extend single-module subcommands to workspaces) ail builtins — list built-in fns and effect ops ail emit-ir — writes .ll ail build — full pipeline → binary ail run — build + execute (tempdir), passthrough exit code ``` ## Verification and correctness (across cycles) 1. **Snapshot tests** for the pretty-printer and IR emit. The diff makes regressions visible immediately. 2. **Property tests** for the JSON ↔ pretty-print roundtrip. 3. **End-to-end tests** for `examples/` with expected program output. 4. **Hash stability**: a test ensures the same def always produces the same hash. 5. **CI pin** of the outputs in `tests/expected/`. 6. **Rustdoc cleanliness**: `cargo doc --no-deps` runs warning-free. Maintained by the `ailang-docwriter` agent (Iter 13d onward); fixing a rustdoc warning is part of the iter that introduced it, not a follow-up. ## What is not (yet) supported Snapshot of the boundary as of Iter 16a. Items move out of this list as iterations land; the JOURNAL records the exact iteration. Recently **lifted** gates that used to live here: cross-module ADTs (lifted in Iter 14h via qualified `module.Type` / `module.Ctor` references in both `(con ...)` and `(term-ctor ...)` / `(pat-ctor ...)` positions); GC for ADT boxes, lambda envs, and closure pairs (Boehm conservative collector wired up in Iter 14f, see Decision 9); nested constructor sub-patterns inside `match` (lifted in Iter 16a via the desugar pass); literal sub-patterns inside a Ctor pattern (lifted in Iter 16c — the desugar pass rewrites every `Pattern::Lit` to a `Term::If` on `==`, both at the top level of an arm and inside a Ctor sub-pattern); `==` extended from Int-only to a polymorphic `forall a. (a, a) -> Bool` over `Int`/`Bool`/`Str`/`Unit` (lifted in Iter 16e — codegen monomorphises and dispatches on the resolved arg type; ADT/Fn arg types are rejected at codegen). - No effect handlers — only the built-in IO and Diverge ops. - No refinements / SMT escalation. - No HM inference inside bodies. Top-level def types are explicit; polymorphism is opt-in via `Type::Forall { vars, body }`. Inside a body, lambdas check monomorphically against their declared type. - Polymorphic fns must be **directly called** at the use site. Passing a polymorphic fn as a value (`let f = id in f(42)`) is not yet supported — it would need one closure-pair global per instantiation, deferred. - No higher-rank polymorphism. Passing a polymorphic fn to another polymorphic fn (`apply(id, 42)`) is not supported. - No local recursive `let`. `let f = ... in ...` only sees `f`'s binding inside the body, not inside its own RHS — recursion needs a top-level def. - No visibility rules in imports. Every top-level def of an imported module is reachable; there is no `pub` / `priv`. What **is** supported (and used as the smoke test for the pipeline): - Int, Bool, Unit, **Str** as primitive types. - `if`, `let`, function calls, recursion. - Effects on function signatures, with `do op(args)` for direct effect ops (`io/print_int`, `io/print_bool`, `io/print_str`). - **Builtins.** Arithmetic operators (`+`, `-`, `*`, `/`, `%`) of type `(Int, Int) -> Int`; ordering operators and `!=` (`!=`, `<`, `<=`, `>`, `>=`) of type `(Int, Int) -> Bool`; logical `not : (Bool) -> Bool`; the IO effect ops listed above; **`==` : forall a. (a, a) -> Bool** (Iter 16e); and **`__unreachable__ : forall a. a`** (Iter 16d). - **`==` is polymorphic** (Iter 16e). The typechecker accepts `==` at any type whose two sides agree (the rigid `a` of the `Forall` is unified by HM at the use site). Codegen monomorphises and dispatches on the resolved AIL arg type: `Int` → `icmp eq i64`; `Bool` → `icmp eq i1`; `Str` → `call @strcmp(ptr, ptr)` then `icmp eq i32 0` (`@strcmp` is declared in the LLVM IR header alongside `@printf` / `@GC_malloc`); `Unit` → constant `i1 true` (Unit has a single inhabitant; both sides are still evaluated for any side effects). ADT and `Fn` arg types are rejected at codegen with a `CodegenError::Internal` mentioning `==` and the offending type — neither has a canonical structural-equality scheme yet, and the language deliberately does not silently elide the check. The other comparison ops stay Int-only; their codegen path emits `icmp s{lt,le,gt,ge,ne}` over `i64`. - **`__unreachable__`** is a polymorphic bottom value: a use of `__unreachable__` typechecks against any expected type at the use site and codegens to the LLVM `unreachable` instruction (UB if ever executed). It is the chain machinery's deepest fall-through for matches that the typechecker proved exhaustive, and it is available to user code as an explicit panic primitive (`(if cond __unreachable__ ...)` for assertions or impossible branches). Reference site is `Term::Var { name = "__unreachable__" }` / form-A bare `__unreachable__`. - **ADTs + pattern matching** (Iter 3, extended in Iter 16a/16c). Sub-patterns of a Ctor pattern may be `Var`, `Wild`, another `Ctor` (Iter 16a), or a literal (Iter 16c). The desugar pass flattens nested Ctor patterns into a chain of let + match and rewrites every `Pattern::Lit` (top-level or sub-) to a `Term::If` on `==` before typecheck/codegen — see `ailang-core::desugar` and Pipeline above. - Literal patterns at top level and inside Ctor sub-patterns (Iter 16c, via desugar). `(pat-lit 0)` and `(pat-ctor Cons (pat-lit 0) _)` both parse and lower; the rewrite is to `Term::If { cond = (== sv lit) }`, so any literal kind whose `==` is supported is authorable. After Iter 16e (`==` polymorphic over `Int`/`Bool`/`Str`/`Unit`), that covers every lit kind the AST ships — including `(pat-lit "hi")` over a `Str` scrutinee, exercised by `examples/eq_demo.ail.json`. - **Imports + qualified cross-module references** via dotted names (Iter 5). Extends to **types and constructors** (Iter 14h): a foreign module's ADT is referenced as `(con std_pair.Pair a b)`, its ctors as `(term-ctor std_pair.Pair MkPair x y)` and `(pat-ctor MkPair x y)` inside that scrutinee. Std-library demos (`examples/std_*_demo.ail.json`) exercise this end-to-end. - **AI-authoring text surface, form (A)** (Decision 6 / Iter 14b–14c, exclusive in 15e). The `ailang-surface` crate parses `.ailx` form-A text into a canonical `ailang-core::ast::Module` and prints any module back as form-A text. `ail render` and `ail describe` use it as the sole text projection; `ail parse` is the inverse direction. Round-trip identity (text → AST → JSON → AST → text) is gated by `ailang-surface/tests/round_trip.rs` over every shipped fixture. - **Memory management via Boehm conservative GC** (Decision 9 / Iter 14f), with **per-fn arena via stack `alloca` for non-escaping allocations** layered on top (Iter 17a). Every ADT box, lambda env, and closure pair allocates either via `@GC_malloc` (escaping; Boehm-managed) or via LLVM `alloca` (non-escaping; freed at fn return). The decision is made by an escape-analysis pre-pass over the fn body — see Decision 9's "Per-fn arena via stack `alloca`" subsection. Boehm-only soak tests are unchanged: `examples/gc_stress.ail.json` and `examples/std_list_stress.ail.json` still allocate via `@GC_malloc` because their boxes flow into other fns and escape. The per-fn-arena path is exercised end-to-end by `examples/escape_local_demo.ail.json` (Iter 17a fixture). - **First-class function references** (Iter 7). A top-level fn name (or qualified `prefix.def`) used as a `Term::Var` is a fn-value. - **Anonymous lambdas with capture** (Iter 8). `Term::Lam` constructs a closure that captures any free variables of its body from the enclosing scope. All fn-values share a single ABI: a `ptr` to a closure pair `{ thunk_ptr, env_ptr }`. Top-level fns get an auto- generated adapter and a static closure pair (env = null) so they remain passable as values without heap overhead. - **Polymorphism via `Type::Forall`** at top-level def types (Iter 12). Use sites instantiate fresh metavars; unification pins them against the concrete types of the call args. Codegen monomorphises on demand: each unique instantiation emits a specialised LLVM fn mangled `@ail____` (e.g. `id__I` for `id` at `Int`, `apply__I_I` for `apply` at `(Int, Int)`). - **Parameterised ADTs** (Iter 13). `TypeDef.vars: Vec` declares type parameters; `Type::Con.args: Vec` carries the type arguments at use sites. Both fields default to empty and are skipped during serialization, so canonical-JSON hashes of every pre-13a definition stay bit-identical (regression test in `crates/ailang-core/src/hash.rs`). Ctor and match codegen stay inline at every use site — there is no specialised ADT symbol — but LLVM field types are derived per use site by substituting through `cdef.ail_fields`. The substitution is read off the call's arg types (ctor) or the scrutinee's `Type::Con.args` (match). An unresolved `Type::Var` reaching `llvm_type` is a hard error rather than a silent fallback to `ptr`. Pipeline regression smoke tests: - `examples/sum.ail.json` → prints 55 (recursion, arithmetic). - `examples/list.ail.json` → prints 42 (ADTs + match). - `examples/hof.ail.json` → prints 42 (first-class fn-refs, indirect call). - `examples/closure.ail.json` → prints 42 (lambda capturing a let-bound var). - `examples/list_map.ail.json` → prints 2/4/6 (ADTs + closure + recursive HOF + IO; the dogfood smoke test). - `examples/sort.ail.json` → prints sorted [3,1,4,1,5,9,2,6,5,3,5] one-per-line (insertion sort over an 11-element list). - `examples/poly_id.ail.json` → prints 42 then "true" (polymorphic identity at `Int` and `Bool`; two specialised fns emitted). - `examples/poly_apply.ail.json` → prints 42 (polymorphic `apply` with a fn-typed parameter; `apply(succ, 41)`). - `examples/box.ail.json` → prints 42 (parameterised ADT round- trip: `MkBox(42)` constructed, then projected by a polymorphic `unbox : forall a. (Box) -> a` and printed). - `examples/maybe_int.ail.json` → prints 7 then 99 (pattern match over `Maybe`: `or_else(Some(7), 99)` then `or_else(None, 99)`). - `examples/std_list_demo.ail.json` (Iter 15a/15b) → exercises `std_list`'s combinators (length, sum, reverse, take/drop-style uses) end-to-end against `std_list`'s `List`. - `examples/std_maybe_demo.ail.json` (Iter 15c) → exercises `std_maybe` combinators over `Maybe`, including `from_maybe` and `map`. - `examples/std_either_demo.ail.json` (Iter 15d) → first program with three distinct type variables in a single fn (the `either` eliminator), monomorphised six different ways in the IR. - `examples/std_pair_demo.ail.json` (Iter 15f) → drives every `std_pair` combinator (fst, snd, swap, map_first, map_second); expected output 7, 9, 9, 7, 8, 18. - `examples/nested_pat.ail.json` (Iter 16a) → first program to use a nested `(pat-ctor Cons a (pat-ctor Cons b _))`; the desugar pass flattens it into a chain that the existing flat-match codegen consumes. Prints 30 for a 3-element input list.