AILang/docs/JOURNAL.md

# JOURNAL

Chronological notes for myself. Not every change; only decisions, obstacles,
and observations that future iterations will need.

## 2026-05-07 — Day 0

- Repo initialised. Assignment in `CLAUDE.md`: LLM-native language, LLVM backend.
- Design decisions captured in `docs/DESIGN.md`.
- Toolchain: `rustc 1.94`, `llvm-config 22.1.3`, `clang` available.
- Decided against `inkwell` in favour of LLVM IR text emit. Rationale in DESIGN.md.
- Workspace layout:
  - `crates/ailang-core` — AST, type, hash, JSON schema
  - `crates/ailang-check` — typechecker (comes later)
  - `crates/ailang-codegen` — lowering + LLVM IR emit
  - `crates/ail` — CLI
- MVP goal: `examples/sum.ail.json` → binary that prints 55. **Achieved.**

## 2026-05-07 — architecture review after the MVP

Still on track? Broadly yes. Concrete observations:

**What holds:**

- JSON AST + canonical form + content hash are all lego bricks that later
  tools can build on without a refactor (`ail deps`, `ail diff`).
- The LLVM IR text pipeline works as planned. No libllvm version pain.
- The effect set is wired into the type system from the start. Extensible to
  row-poly without touching the core.

**Debt that accrues interest:**

1. **`current_block_label_for_phi` is a heuristic** (see codegen). On nested
   `if` terms it will return the wrong block label, because it scans the body
   backwards. Ticking, because no test cases trigger it yet. Must be fixed
   next, before new language features arrive.
2. **No typed AST.** Codegen reads the source AST directly and relies on
   the typechecker having run before. Fine for the MVP; once ADTs or
   closures arrive, I will need a separate typed IR stage (TIR).
3. **The `hash` field is not in the AST.** Right now we hash the def object
   directly. Once I serialise hashes as fields (caching), the hash will
   need to exclude that field before computation.

**Plan iteration 2 (now):**

1. Clean up block-label tracking, with a nested-if test.
2. Strings as a literal + `io/print_str`.
3. Hello-world example as a second E2E test.
4. CLI: `--json` output for machine consumers wherever it fits.

**Plan iteration 3:**

ADTs + pattern matching. That is the next big jump. Requires a typed IR
stage (TIR), because pattern matching lowers into decision trees, which
have a different shape from the AST.

## 2026-05-07 — iteration 2 done

- Block-label tracking is now robust (nested `if`s work). Test
  `max3_picks_largest` protects it.
- Strings as `Lit::Str { value }`, type `Str` -> LLVM `ptr`, with
  `io/print_str` effect op. `examples/hello.ail.json` prints a string.
- CLI: `manifest --json`, `builtins --json` for tool consumers.
- `ail deps [--of NAME] [--json]` lists call edges. Effect ops are tagged
  `effect:NAME` so a consumer can filter them.

**Architecture check:** no structural deviations. Codegen still reads the
source AST directly (a TIR stage will become necessary with ADTs in
iteration 3).

## 2026-05-07 — iteration 3 done: ADTs

- TypeDef in the AST with ctors. A ctor has `name` and `fields: [Type...]`.
- Term::Ctor (construction) and Term::Match (pattern matching).
- Patterns: `Wild`, `Var`, `Lit`, `Ctor { ctor, fields }`. In the MVP,
  nested ctor patterns are NOT allowed — sub-patterns must be `Var` or
  `Wild`.
- Typechecker with a type registry and `ctor_index` (ctor name → ADT). In
  Match, exhaustiveness is checked against the full constructor set. A
  negative test protects this.
- Codegen: boxed heap layout. Per ctor application, `malloc(8 + 8*n)`
  bytes; tag at offset 0, fields from offset 8 (8-byte slots, native typed
  load/store). Match: load tag + switch + arm blocks + phi at the join.
- `examples/list.ail.json` (Cons/Nil list, sum_list via match) returns 42.

**Surprisingly painless.** The architecture decisions from day 0 paid off:
opaque ptr in LLVM 22 makes the boxed layout almost glue-free; effect
tracking was untouched by ADTs; the JSON AST takes new node types
cleanly.

**Debt accrued:**

1. **Codegen still reads the source AST directly.** The temptation to push
   on without TIR was strong — and worked, because my Match restrictions
   are flat (no nested patterns). Once nested patterns arrive, decision-
   tree lowering will not stay clean without TIR. Debt acknowledged; not
   due now.
2. **No GC.** The heap leaks. Acceptable for demo programs; must be
   addressed before any longer-running program. Options for Phase 4:
   refcount, Boehm-GC linkage, region inference.
3. **No runtime pretty-printer for ADT values.** `io/print_int` is enough
   for demos, but a generic `show :: a -> Str` for ADTs would be valuable.
   Requires dispatch over the tag — feasible, but not now.

**Plan iteration 4:**

The next steps are less obvious. Three candidates in priority order:

1. **Module system (imports).** Right now everything is in a single module.
   With multiple modules + cross-module hashing the language only becomes
   practical for several defs.
2. **Structured error output (`ail check --json`).** So tools can react to
   type errors without parsing text.
3. **Closures / higher-order functions.** Requires closure conversion and
   is a bigger step.

Iteration 4 will be (1) + (2) — both strengthen the LLM tooling and have
moderate risk.

## 2026-05-07 — workflow change: orchestrator + agent repo

At the user's suggestion, switching to **orchestrator mode**: I delegate
clearly bounded implementation chunks to sub-agents and keep only
architecture decisions, reviews, and commit discipline. Four specialised
agents drafted: implementer, architect, tester, debugger.

**Important correction:** the user required the agents not to be hidden in
`.claude/agents/`, but versioned as a visible part of the project under
`agents/`. DESIGN.md gained a new section "Project ecosystem", which
records this: AILang is not just a language, but language core + CLI +
examples + agents + docs + tests, all of equal weight.

Invocation scheme: the system-prompt body from `agents/<name>.md` as a
prefix before the concrete task + sent to the `general-purpose` agent.
Functionally identical to subagent loading from `.claude/agents/`, but
visible in the repo.

**Plan iteration 4 (revised):**

The module system is more involved than expected (cross-module hashing,
import resolution). First the smaller tooling wins, then the module system
as iteration 5:

1. **Structured error output** (`ail check --json` with a Diagnostic
   struct, stable codes like `unbound-var`, `type-mismatch`).
2. **`ail diff <a> <b>`** — semantic module diff via per-def hash
   comparison.
3. **IR snapshot tests** — regression protection for the codegen pipeline.

## 2026-05-07 — iteration 4 done: LLM tooling consolidation

Three sub-commits, each produced by an `ailang-implementer` invocation
and spot-checked by the orchestrator:

- `93fe723` Iter 4a: `ail check --json` with a `Diagnostic` struct
  (`severity`, `code`, `message`, `def`, `ctx`). Stable codes:
  `unbound-var`, `type-mismatch`, `arity-mismatch`,
  `non-exhaustive-match`, `unknown-ctor`, `unknown-ctor-in-pattern`,
  `nested-ctor-pattern-not-allowed`, `duplicate-def`,
  `unknown-effect-op`, `unknown-type`, `schema-mismatch`. API:
  `check_module(&Module) -> Vec<Diagnostic>`.
- `c652b12` Iter 4b: `ail diff <a> <b> [--json]` as a structural top-level
  def diff via BLAKE3 hash. Four categories (added/removed/changed/
  unchanged), sorted alphabetically, exit code 1 on diff.
- `74a2005` Iter 4c: IR snapshot tests in
  `crates/ail/tests/snapshots/{sum,max3,hello,list}.ll`.
  Normalisation of `target triple`. Update via `UPDATE_SNAPSHOTS=1
  cargo test ir_snapshot_`. Mismatch produces an `.actual` file.

Test count: 28 (previously 19). 7 E2E + 4 IR snapshot + 9 ailang-check + 1
ailang-codegen + 7 ailang-core.

**Closed from the debt register:**

- Block tracking in codegen has not been a heuristic risk since Iter 2;
  the explicit `current_block: String` track is now additionally
  protected against regression by Iter 4c snapshot tests. Debt closed.

**New / sharpened debt:**

1. `check_module` is **single-shot** — the first error aborts, no
   multi-diagnostic gathering. The spec was that way, but the format
   suggests Vec semantics. A real multi-diagnostic refactor will be
   cheaper once TIR exists (a central error accumulator via a separate
   stage). Not due now.
2. `source_filename` in the IR is hard-coded to `"<module>.ail"`. As long
   as there is only one top-level module, that is platform-stable. With
   Iter 5 (module system + imports) the path becomes relevant — keep it
   path-independent at construction time, otherwise the snapshots will
   tip over.

**Plan iteration 5:** module system with imports. Cross-module hashing,
import resolution, multiple `.ail.json` files in one build. The multi-
diagnostic refactor only after that.

Sub-steps:

- **5a — workspace loader.** `ailang_core::Workspace { modules:
  BTreeMap<String, Module> }` plus `load_workspace(entry: &Path)`, which
  follows `imports` recursively from the entry module. Convention:
  `import { module: "foo" }` resolves to `<dir>/foo.ail.json` next to the
  entry. Cycle detection. CLI: existing subcommands keep working on a
  single module; a new `ail workspace <entry>` lists all reachable
  modules with hash. Tests: two small example modules with an import
  relation; cycle test.
- **5b — cross-module typecheck.** The typechecker takes `&Workspace`
  instead of `&Module`. Imports are mounted in the env as a namespace
  (`alias.def` or, with no alias, `module.def`). New diagnostic codes:
  `unknown-module`, `unknown-import`, `import-cycle`, `ambiguous-name`.
  Tests per code.
- **5c — cross-module codegen.** The emitter produces IR for all modules
  in the workspace, prefix-mangled with `@ail_<module>_<def>`. E2E test:
  a program that uses a function from module B in module A returns the
  correct result in the binary.
- **5d — tooling adjustments.** `manifest`, `describe`, `deps`, `diff`
  gain a `--workspace` mode (recursive). The single mode stays the
  default for backwards compatibility.

During Iter 5, at construction time **keep `source_filename`
path-independent** (module name only, no directory prefix), otherwise
the IR snapshots will tip over.

## 2026-05-07 — Iter 5b done: cross-module typecheck

- `check_workspace(&Workspace) -> Vec<Diagnostic>` as the top-level API.
  `check_module` is preserved and internally lifts the module into a
  trivial workspace.
- Convention for qualified references (recorded in DESIGN.md):
  `Term::Var { name }` with exactly one dot = `<prefix>.<def>`. Prefix is
  an import alias or module name. No new AST node, no renamed fields ⇒
  hashes stay stable; all `ir_snapshot_*` still green.
- Three new diagnostic codes: `unknown-module`, `unknown-import`,
  `invalid-def-name` (with `ctx.reason: "contains-dot"`).
- CLI: `ail check <entry>` now **always** loads via `load_workspace`.
  Workspace load failures become structured diagnostics in JSON mode with
  codes `module-not-found`, `module-cycle`, `module-name-mismatch`,
  `module-hash-mismatch`, `schema-mismatch`. `ail build` and
  `ail emit-ir` stay per single module (cross-module codegen is 5c).
- Examples: `ws_main.ail.json` now calls `ws_lib.add` (observable). New:
  `ws_broken.ail.json` (`unknown-import`),
  `ws_unknown_module.ail.json` (`unknown-module`).
- Tests: 37 green (previously 32). 4 new workspace integration tests in
  `crates/ailang-check/tests/workspace.rs`, one new e2e test
  `check_workspace_resolves_import`.
- Debt: single-shot diagnostics still in place (multi-diagnostic after
  5c). The dot convention covers exactly one dot — nested module paths
  (`a.b.c`) do not exist; that would only be a topic with hierarchical
  modules and currently falls through as `unbound-var`.

## 2026-05-07 — Iter 5c done: cross-module codegen

- **Mangling break (deliberate).** All AILang functions are now called
  `@ail_<module>_<def>`, even in single-module programs. The old form
  `@ail_<def>` is gone. Strings/const globals analogously
  (`@.str_<module>_<hint>_<idx>`, `@ail_<module>_<const>`). The entry
  point stays `main` as C ABI: a `define i32 @main()` trampoline calls
  `@ail_<entry-module>_main()`. If the entry module has no
  `main : () -> Unit !IO`, the build fails with `MissingEntryMain`.
- **Workspace lowering.** New top-level API
  `ailang_codegen::lower_workspace(ws: &Workspace) -> Result<String>`
  produces a single `.ll` for the whole workspace. Modules in
  alphabetical order (BTreeMap order); defs in AST order. Cross-module
  calls are resolved in codegen via the import map of the calling module
  — same logic as in the typechecker, locally duplicated with a
  cross-reference (no shared helper module, because the type worlds
  differ: the typechecker handles `Type`, codegen handles `FnSig` from
  llvm types).
- **CLI.** `ail build` and `ail emit-ir` now always load the workspace
  and check/lower it fully. Single-module programs keep working
  (trivial workspace with one module). `emit_ir(m)` stays in the codegen
  crate as a convenience API and internally wraps into a trivial
  workspace.
- **Snapshots regenerated.** `sum.ll`, `max3.ll`, `hello.ll`, `list.ll`
  show the new mangling. New `ws_main.ll` snapshot documents the
  cross-module build: `@ail_ws_main_main` calls `@ail_ws_lib_add`.
- **Tests.** 40 green (previously 37). New: `workspace_build_runs_imported_fn`
  (e2e: prints 5), `ir_snapshot_ws_main`, `missing_entry_main_is_error`
  (codegen unit). Existing behaviour tests
  (`sum_1_to_10_is_55`, `max3_picks_largest`, `hello_world_str_lit`,
  `list_sum_via_match`) stay green — behaviour unchanged, only the
  mangling is new.

**Debt closed:**

- **#19 (`source_filename` hardening).** In the workspace world,
  `source_filename` is now uniformly `<entry-module>.ail`, once per
  workspace. The previous hard-coded path dot is gone with it.

**State:** the module system is closed end to end — loader + typecheck +
codegen + build see the workspace as a coherent unit. The multi-
diagnostic refactor and possibly cross-module ADTs remain for later.

## 2026-05-07 — Iter 5d done: tooling extended to the workspace

- `ail manifest|describe|deps|diff <entry> --workspace` now operate
  across all modules of the workspace. The default without the flag stays
  single-module for backwards compatibility. Manifest sorts by
  `(module, name)`, describe accepts dotted notation `ws_lib.add`, deps
  emits `{from_module, from_def, to_module, to_def}` edges, diff compares
  workspace-wide with added/removed/changed/unchanged_modules and a
  nested sub-diff per changed_module.
- Refactor: `diff_def_lists` is the single source of the four-category
  logic; single and workspace diff share it.
- Tests: 44 green (previously 40). New: `manifest_workspace_lists_all_defs`,
  `describe_workspace_resolves_qualified_name`,
  `deps_workspace_includes_cross_module`, `diff_workspace_added_module`.

**Observation (debt):** `deps` does not filter builtins/locals/function
parameters. In workspace mode that becomes more visible than in single
mode — `ws_lib.add` lists edges to `ws_lib.+` (builtin) and
`ws_lib.a`/`ws_lib.b` (function parameters). A known pre-existing
issue from Iter 2; Task #22 in the backlog.

## 2026-05-07 — architecture review after Iter 5

Architect agent invoked. Findings:

1. **Mangling consistency holds.** `@ail_<module>_<def>` is consistent
   across functions, constants, string globals, and cross-module calls.
   The trampoline is correct. ADT constructors are deliberately
   symbol-free (inline malloc).
2. **Module hashes bit-identical since Iter 4.** The Iter 5c snapshot
   regeneration was a codegen-output change, not a hash break.
3. **Drift, due now:**
   - DESIGN.md says `define i64 @main()`, codegen emits
     `define i32 @main()` (see `sum.ll:35`).
   - String-schema notation in DESIGN.md was shortened
     (`@.str_<module>_<idx>` instead of `@.str_<module>_<hint>_<idx>`).
4. **Debt that accrues interest:** the `deps` builtin leak (Task #22) has
   become a falsehood in workspace mode — close it before the next big
   jump.

**Plan iteration 6 — clean-up:**

1. **Fix DESIGN.md drift.** Update the mangling-scheme block, correct the
   `@main` signature, and note the string globals precisely.
2. **`deps` hardening (#22).** Build a top-level def table per workspace;
   filter edges whose target is not a top-level symbol, or emit them as
   separate `builtin:`/`local:` categories. Function parameters via
   lexical scope tracking from walk_term.
3. **Multi-diagnostic refactor (#20).** `check_workspace` accumulates
   `Vec<Diagnostic>` across all defs instead of short-circuiting on the
   first error. Intra-def may still short-circuit — the value is "see
   all broken defs at once", not "see all broken sub-terms of one def".

Order: 1 first (doc triviality), then 2 before 3 (deps is a tooling-
truth fix, multi-diag is a structural extension).

## 2026-05-07 — Iter 6 done: deps hardening + multi-diagnose + DESIGN audit

Three things landed together. All small, all KISS — no architecture move,
just paying off recorded debt.

**1. `ail deps` filters builtins, params, and let/match bindings (#22).**

Before: `sum -> +, -, ==, n, sum` and `ws_lib.add -> ws_lib.+`,
`ws_lib.a`, `ws_lib.b`. After: `sum -> sum`, `ws_lib.add -> ws_lib.add`
gone (no real deps; only the cross-module call from `ws_main` remains).

Implementation:
- New helper `ailang_check::builtins::value_names()`: derives the
  Var-level builtin names (`+ - * / % == != < <= > >= not`) from
  `list()`, so the install-list and the deps-filter share one source of
  truth.
- `walk_term` in `crates/ail/src/main.rs` now threads a `scope` set:
  fn-params seed it; `Let` adds the bound name for the body only;
  `Match` arms add their pattern variables (`bind_pattern` helper, MVP
  rule "ctor sub-patterns are Var/Wild") and roll them back after. Var
  refs that hit `scope` or `builtins` are dropped; qualified names
  (`prefix.def`) are passed through unconditionally — the typechecker
  forbids dots in def names, so no shadowing risk.
- Tests added: `deps_filters_builtins_params_locals`,
  `deps_workspace_filters_builtins_and_params`. The Iter 5d test
  (`deps_workspace_includes_cross_module`) keeps passing — the only
  edge it asserted is the legitimate one.

**2. `check_module` / `check_workspace` are multi-diagnose (#20).**

`check_in_workspace` returns `Vec<CheckError>` instead of `Result<()>`.
Pass-1 (top-level symbol table) stays fail-fast — corrupt globals would
taint every later diagnostic. Type-def installation is fail-fast within
a module (env corruption) but the outer module loop continues. The
body-check loop is the multi-diagnose layer: each def is checked against
the assembled env, errors accumulate, the next def is attempted.

Test: `body_errors_accumulate_across_defs` — one module with two
independent body errors (arity mismatch + unknown var) yields two
diagnostics with the right `def` field. The legacy single-error `check`
keeps working by `.into_iter().next()`-ing the Vec, so internal snapshot
tests in `crates/ailang-check/src/lib.rs` are unchanged.

Out of scope: intra-def collection. A single fn body with three type
errors still reports one. The "see all broken defs at once" goal is met;
intra-def will require unification deferral and isn't due now.

**3. DESIGN.md `What the MVP is NOT` audit (#24).**

The section was lying: it claimed "No ADTs / pattern matching" (delivered
Iter 3) and "Only ints + bools + unit" (strings landed Iter 2). Renamed
to `What is not (yet) supported`, restructured into "not yet" + "what is
supported (smoke-tested)". New invariant: this section is meant to be
the truth at the **end of the latest iteration**, not a 2026-05-07-day-0
scope statement.

**Architecture check (the user-asked self-questioning):**

- *Would I use this language now?* For non-recursive arithmetic + ADT
  programs over int/bool/str: yes, comfortably. For anything that needs
  mapping, folding, generic data structures: no, closures are the
  blocker. That's the next big sprint, not Iter 7.
- *Consistency:* DESIGN.md, JOURNAL.md, code, and CLI output now agree
  on what the language can do. The "What is not (yet) supported" block
  is the canonical truth surface.
- *Visualisation:* `ail deps --workspace --json` is now a clean
  cross-module call graph (no builtin noise). Good enough for an
  external graph renderer to consume; a built-in DOT/ASCII renderer is
  *possible future tooling*, not "we need it now". KISS.
- *Documentation:* the agents/ directory is the sub-prompt layer, the
  JOURNAL is the iteration log, DESIGN.md is the contract. No new doc
  axes needed at this scale.

**Tests:** 47 green (previously 44). +2 deps tests in `e2e.rs`, +1
multi-diag test in `crates/ailang-check/tests/workspace.rs`.

**Plan iteration 7:**

Closures + higher-order functions. This is the big jump that
DESIGN.md / Day 0 has been pointing at: it requires a typed IR (TIR)
stage, closure conversion in lowering, and a heap-aware ABI. The
multi-diag refactor in Iter 6 was scoped intentionally minimal — when
TIR lands, intra-def diagnostics become structurally cheap and Task #20
gets revisited.

## 2026-05-07 — Iter 7 done: first-class function references (no capture)

Iter 6 outlined Iter 7 as "closures + HOFs + TIR". KISS course-correct
on inspection: that bundle had three independent things in it, and the
HOF use-cases (passing functions around, calling through fn-typed
parameters) need none of TIR or capture. Splitting paid off — what
landed here is ~120 LOC of codegen, no TIR, no heap, no ABI churn.
Closures with capture stay queued for Iter 8 (where TIR is the
correct precondition).

**What works now:**
- Top-level fn name (or qualified `prefix.def`) used as a value yields
  an LLVM fn-pointer (`@ail_<m>_<def>`, type `ptr`).
- Fn-typed parameters can be called as `f(args)` — the body emits an
  indirect `call <ret> (<param-tys>) %f(...)`.
- Pass through `let`: `let g = inc in g(x)` works (the local just
  aliases the global SSA, the sidetable lookup still hits).
- Pass to another fn: `apply(inc, 41) == 42` — see
  `examples/hof.ail.json`, exercised end-to-end.

**What does not (yet) work — by design:**
- No anonymous lambdas. The only fn-value source is a top-level def
  reference.
- No capture. A fn-value is always a constant pointer to a top-level
  def; there is no environment to allocate.
- Both deferred to Iter 8 where they share the TIR + closure-conversion
  preconditions.

**Implementation, in order of where the rubber meets the road:**

1. `llvm_type` learned `Type::Fn { .. } -> "ptr"`. The actual signature
   travels separately. New helper `fn_sig_from_type` lifts an AILang
   fn-type into an `FnSig` (LLVM types only).
2. `Emitter` got a sidetable: `ssa_fn_sigs: BTreeMap<String, FnSig>`,
   keyed by SSA value (or `@global`). It's reset per function body.
3. At `emit_fn` entry, every fn-typed parameter registers
   `(%arg_<name>, sig)` in the sidetable.
4. `lower_term(Term::Var)` now falls through to a top-level fn lookup
   (`resolve_top_level_fn`) when the name isn't a local. The returned
   SSA is the global symbol; the sidetable gets the sig.
5. `lower_term(Term::App)` dispatches:
   - if callee is a `Var` AND not shadowed AND statically known
     (`is_static_callee` covers builtin operators, qualified
     `prefix.def`, current-module fns), keep the existing direct
     `lower_app` path — no extra indirection in the IR;
   - otherwise lower the callee, expect type `ptr`, look up the sig in
     the sidetable, emit `emit_indirect_call`.
6. `Term::If` propagates the sig to its phi SSA when both branches are
   fn-pointers with matching sigs (cheap two-line copy; no separate
   test, falls out of the `apply`-on-conditional pattern).

**Why no typechecker change?** The typechecker already accepted
fn-typed locals (`Term::Var` against `env.globals`, App via `synth(callee)`
unifying with `Type::Fn`). The only blocker was `MVP: callee must be a
variable` in codegen.

**Tests:** 48 green (previously 47).

- `crates/ail/tests/e2e.rs::higher_order_apply_inc` builds and runs
  `examples/hof.ail.json`, asserts the binary prints `42`.
- Existing tests unchanged (incl. snapshot tests around the IR
  emission for `sum`, `list`, `max3`).

**Architecture self-check:**

- *Would I use this language now?* Yes for `apply`-style and "pass a
  predicate" patterns. Still no for capturing closures (`let n = 3 in
  map(\x -> x + n, xs)`-equivalent), but the ergonomic gap shrank.
- *Consistency:* DESIGN.md "What is not (yet) supported" rewritten in
  the same edit; first-class fn-refs now have a positive bullet, the
  closures bullet is precise about what it means (no capture, no
  lambdas).
- *Visualisation:* `ail describe`/`manifest` already render fn-typed
  params correctly via the existing `pretty::type_to_string`
  (`((Int) -> Int, Int) -> Int`). No tooling change required.
- *KISS:* every alternative I considered (full `LocalType` enum,
  swapping `(String, String)` returns to a typed wrapper, lifting
  lambdas to defs as syntactic sugar) was strictly more code than the
  sidetable approach, with no expressivity gain.

**Plan iteration 8:**

Closures with capture, anonymous lambdas, the typed IR (TIR) layer,
closure conversion in lowering. Now that we have indirect calls
working, the main delta is: a fn-value also needs an environment
pointer, the sidetable becomes per-value (heap-allocated), and the
calling convention shifts to `(env_ptr, args...)`. Touches every
existing call path — that's why it gets its own iteration.

## 2026-05-07 — Iter 8 done: closures with capture (no TIR needed)

Iter 7's plan named TIR as the prerequisite for closures. On
inspection that bundling was wrong — TIR is one possible
implementation strategy, not a structural requirement. The
typechecker already attaches enough type information through `synth`
that the codegen can read capture types out of `self.locals`
directly. So Iter 8 ships closures **without** introducing TIR. KISS
won.

The work split into two commits:

**Iter 8a — closure-pair ABI flip.** Every fn-value is now a `ptr` to
a heap or static closure pair `{ thunk_ptr, env_ptr }`, regardless of
whether it came from a lambda or a top-level def reference. To keep
top-level-fn references cheap, every top-level fn auto-emits:

```llvm
define <ret> @ail_<m>_<f>_adapter(ptr %_env, <params>) {
  %r = call <ret> @ail_<m>_<f>(<args>)
  ret <ret> %r
}
@ail_<m>_<f>_clos = constant { ptr, ptr } { @adapter, null }
```

`Term::Var` resolving to a top-level fn returns the address of
`_clos`, never the bare fn pointer. `emit_indirect_call` was
rewritten to GEP+load both halves and call `thunk(env, args...)`.
Direct calls (statically-known callees in `Term::App`) bypass the
adapter and stay at the original speed.

The Iter 7 hof example (`apply(inc, 41)`) continues to print 42
unchanged — only the IR shape changed, not the source. IR snapshot
files for sum/list/max3/hello/ws_main were refreshed.

**Iter 8b — Term::Lam + capture + lambda lifting.** New AST node:

```jsonc
{ "t": "lam",
  "params": ["x"...],
  "paramTypes": [Type...],
  "retType": Type,
  "effects": ["..."],
  "body": Term }
```

Param/return types are explicit. The typechecker accepts the
declared `Type::Fn` shape, checks the body's type against `retType`,
and verifies that body effects are a subset of the declared lambda
effects (no row polymorphism in the MVP). Constructing a lambda is
pure; the act of *calling* picks up the declared effects, via the
existing App branch.

Codegen does textbook closure conversion:

1. **Free-variable analysis.** `collect_captures` walks the body
   skipping builtins (`+`, `==`, ...), the current module's top-
   level fns, and qualified `prefix.def` names. The remainder are
   captures. Inner lambdas contribute their own free vars upward.
2. **Lift to thunk.** For each lambda, generate a fresh
   `@ail_<m>_<def>_lam<id>(ptr %env, params...)`. State the body
   into a side buffer (the emitter's `body`/`locals`/`counter` are
   saved and reset, then restored). Captures and lambda params are
   pushed as named locals so the body lowering finds them. The
   thunk text goes into a `deferred_thunks` queue and is appended
   after the parent fn's `}` — LLVM IR doesn't care about fn order.
3. **Pack at the use site.** In the OUTER body emit:

   ```llvm
   %env = call ptr @malloc(i64 <8 * captures>)
   ; for each capture i: store at offset 8*i
   %clos = call ptr @malloc(i64 16)
   ; store thunk_ptr at offset 0, env at offset 8
   ```

   `%clos` is the value returned by the Lam term. Its sig is
   registered in the sidetable so subsequent indirect calls work.

4. **Capture sigs propagate.** A fn-typed capture (e.g. capturing a
   fn-typed param of an outer scope) keeps its FnSig in the thunk's
   sidetable, so the captured fn can still be indirect-called from
   inside the lambda.

Capture layout uses 8-byte slots regardless of LLVM type. Typed
load/store reads only the bytes it needs — wasted padding for `i1`
and `i8` is fine at this scale.

**Architecture self-check:**

- *Would I use this language now?* Yes for substantially more cases.
  `let n = 3 in apply(\\x. x + n, 39)` is the example I would have
  reached for in Iter 6 and bounced off. It now compiles and runs.
  `map`/`fold`/`filter` over user-supplied predicates are within
  reach — only the absence of polymorphism still forces author-side
  monomorphisation.
- *Did I think of everything?* Hash stability checked manually:
  `examples/sum.ail.json` produced the same fn hashes
  (`db33f57cb329935e`, `d9a916a0ed10a3d3`) before and after Iter 8.
  Existing modules without `Term::Lam` serialise bit-identically. ✓
- *Consistency:* DESIGN.md "What is not (yet) supported" rewritten
  in the same edit. The Term schema gained `lam`, `ctor`, `match`
  rows that were already supported but had been omitted from the
  schema fragment. Now the doc is exhaustive for the supported
  language.
- *Visualisation:* `ail describe` already renders Lam terms (added
  pretty-printer rule), and the codegen IR for `closure.ail.json`
  reads as a textbook closure-conversion lowering.
- *KISS check:* I considered three alternatives and all were
  strictly worse — fat-pointer ABI (aggregate-passing concerns), full
  TIR layer (large rewrite), uniform heap pair without static-closure
  optimisation (regressed Iter 7 to one malloc per fn-value escape).

**Tests:** 49 green (was 48 after Iter 7). One new e2e:
`closure_captures_let_n` builds and runs `examples/closure.ail.json`
asserting "42". IR snapshot files refreshed for the per-fn adapter +
static-closure scaffold — only structural delta.

**Plan iteration 9:**

Two candidates, both real pain points:

1. **Polymorphic inference.** Make `Type::Forall` actually work in
   `synth` — instantiate fresh type variables at each use site, allow
   `let id = \\x. x in (id 1, id true)`. This unblocks generic
   `map`/`fold`/etc. without per-type clones. Probably small (~150
   LOC in the typechecker; codegen already monomorphises by
   instantiation when it lowers the call).

2. **GC / region reclamation.** Right now ADT boxes, lambda envs,
   and closure pairs all leak through the program's lifetime. A
   minimal mark-and-sweep over a tagged heap would let us run real
   programs. Bigger lift, ~400-600 LOC plus runtime support.

Leaning toward (1) for the next iteration: it's the smaller bite
*and* the bigger expressivity unlock. (2) becomes acute only when
someone tries to run an unbounded loop, which the current examples
don't.

## 2026-05-07 — Iter 9 done: dogfood + `ail run`

Course-corrected from the Iter-8 plan. Polymorphism is the bigger
expressivity unlock on paper, but I hadn't actually proved that the
language was sufficient for "small but real" programs without it. So
Iter 9 became a dogfood iteration: write a non-trivial program
that exercises everything Iter 1-8 shipped, and use `ail run` /
errors / type-checker output as the user would. If something broke,
fix it. If nothing broke, document the boundary moved.

**`examples/list_map.ail.json`**:

```jsonc
type IntList = Nil | Cons Int IntList

map_int :: ((Int) -> Int, IntList) -> IntList
map_int(f, xs) = match xs {
  Nil          -> Nil
  Cons(h, t)   -> Cons(f(h), map_int(f, t))
}

print_list :: (IntList) -> Unit !IO
print_list(xs) = match xs {
  Nil          -> ()
  Cons(h, t)   -> let _ = do io/print_int(h) in print_list(t)
}

main = let xs = Cons 1 (Cons 2 (Cons 3 Nil)) in
       print_list(map_int(\\x. x * 2, xs))
```

**Result:** nothing broke. Output `2\\n4\\n6\\n`, exit 0. The full
pipeline (`ail run`) covers: ADTs with two ctors of different
arity; pattern matching with nested `Var` fields; recursion over
ADT; closures (with no captures here, so env is null but the
closure-pair plumbing still gets exercised); fn-typed parameters in
a top-level def; `do io/...` inside a match arm body, with `let _`
to sequence two effectful operations; effect propagation through
the call chain. This validates Iter 1-8 as a self-contained
foundation.

**Friction surfaced:** writing the AST by hand is tedious — the
JSON for this 4-def module is 200+ lines. That's not surprising
(the format is for LLMs, not humans), but it suggests an Iter 10
priority: a richer pretty-print form, or an `ail snippet` helper
for common boilerplate (`mk_list_int`, etc.). Not blocking; noted.

**`ail run` (Iter 9b):** Builds into a tempdir + execs the binary,
exit code passthrough. Saves a `cd && ./bin` step in the dogfood
loop. Tiny addition — `Cmd::Build`'s body factored into a shared
`build_to` helper.

**Architecture self-check:**

- *Would I use this language now?* For self-contained Int-typed
  programs over recursive ADTs: yes. The list_map example is what
  I would have wanted to write since Iter 6 and bounced off
  repeatedly. It now compiles and runs without me adapting the
  source — the language is what its authors said it was, end to
  end.
- *Did I think of everything?* Two cracks observed during the
  dogfood:
  - `(Int)` parens around single-param fn-types in pretty-print are
    visual noise. Cosmetic, can wait.
  - `let _ = do <effect> in <body>` is the only way to sequence
    effects today. Working as intended given KISS, but a `;`
    operator (sequencing) would be cheap polish.
- *Consistency:* DESIGN.md CLI block + smoke-test list updated.
  Iter 8c invariant — "What is not (yet) supported" ≡ truth at end
  of latest iteration — held; no new pending items.
- *KISS:* Iter 9 added 0 LOC of language semantics. All gain came
  from validating the existing surface and a small CLI helper.

**Tests:** 50 green (was 49). New e2e
`list_map_doubles_then_prints`. No test for `ail run` itself —
`build_and_run` already exercises the equivalent path.

**Plan iteration 10:**

The dogfood revealed two real-but-not-blocking pain points and one
big architectural gap. Candidates, ranked:

1. **Polymorphic let-bindings with monomorphisation at codegen.**
   Allows `let id = \\x. x in (id 1, id true)` and ultimately
   `map :: (a -> b) -> List a -> List b`. The ground truth-ier
   answer for the "would I use it for X?" question, but a
   non-trivial pipeline change (typechecker→codegen needs to thread
   instantiation info to the call site).

2. **Sequencing operator `;` and richer effect ergonomics.** A
   `Term::Seq { lhs, rhs }` (or compile sugar to `Let { name: "_",
   value: lhs, body: rhs }`) plus a small pretty-print update.
   Cheap, satisfying.

3. **GC.** Heap reclamation for ADT boxes, lambda envs, closure
   pairs. Real architecture step. Becomes acute the moment someone
   writes a long-running loop; the current examples don't.

Tentative pick: (2) for the next sprint as a satisfying small
polish, then (1) as Iter 11. (3) bides its time until a real
program needs it.

## 2026-05-07 — Iter 10 done: Term::Seq sequencing

Followed the Iter 9 plan and shipped (2). New AST node
`Term::Seq { lhs, rhs }` with serde tag "seq". Semantics: evaluate
lhs (which must be Unit), discard the value, return rhs. Effects
from both sides accumulate.

This is sugar for `let _ = lhs in rhs`, but it's a first-class node
because:
- The pretty-print renders cleanly (`(seq lhs rhs)` instead of
  borrowing the `let` form with a discard binding).
- Diagnostics are sharper: a non-Unit lhs gets a "type mismatch"
  error pointing at the seq site, not "binding `_` had type X" at
  a let site.
- Future tooling (effect inference visualisation, dataflow) can
  treat sequencing as a structural concept instead of a special-
  cased let.

Codegen is trivial: lower lhs (drop SSA), lower rhs (return).

Refactored `examples/list_map.ail.json`'s `print_list` to use seq
instead of `let _ = ...`. Output unchanged (`2\\n4\\n6\\n`); the
JSON shed a few lines and reads more honestly.

**Architecture self-check:**

- *Would I use this language now?* Same answer as Iter 9 (yes for
  small but real programs), but the seq node makes IO-heavy
  recursion read better — closer to "call this effect, then this
  one" instead of "bind this effect to nothing, then this one".
- *Did I break anything?* Hash stability check: existing examples
  without `Term::Seq` serialise identically; their fn hashes are
  unchanged. `list_map.ail.json`'s hashes shifted as expected since
  its body changed.
- *KISS:* +30 LOC across AST/pretty/check/codegen/walker. One
  unit test for the lhs-must-be-Unit rule. The dogfood example
  proves the e2e path.

**Tests:** 51 green (was 50). New `seq_lhs_must_be_unit` unit test
in ailang-check. Existing list_map e2e still passes after the
refactor.

**Plan iteration 11:**

Polymorphism, as queued in the Iter 9 plan. Concretely: HM-style
unification + let-generalisation in the typechecker, monomorph-
isation at codegen time. Touches the typechecker→codegen pipeline.
Bigger commit than the recent stretch, will probably need to be
phased (typechecker substitution machinery, then codegen
specialisation, then docs).

## 2026-05-07 — Iter 11 done: deeper dogfood (insertion sort)

Pulled back from polymorphism for one more validation cycle before
the architectural step. Polymorphism is a substantial pipeline
change (typechecker substitution + codegen monomorphisation) and I
wanted one more "small but real" program to confirm the existing
foundation holds before disturbing it.

`examples/sort.ail.json` — insertion sort over `IntList`:

```jsonc
insert :: Int -> IntList -> IntList
insert(y, xs) = match xs {
  Nil           -> [y]
  Cons(h, t)    -> if y <= h then Cons(y, Cons(h, t))
                              else Cons(h, insert(y, t))
}

sort :: IntList -> IntList
sort(xs) = match xs {
  Nil          -> Nil
  Cons(h, t)   -> insert(h, sort(t))
}

print_list :: IntList -> Unit !IO    // uses Iter 10 seq

main = print_list(sort([3,1,4,1,5,9,2,6,5,3,5]))
```

**Result:** typechecks first try, runs first try, prints
`1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 5 6 9` (each on its own line). 11-element input,
correct sorted output. The combination of recursive ADT pattern
match + comparison ops + branching + leaf recursion + IO
sequencing all worked end to end without the language tripping me
up. Iter 10's seq made `print_list` notably cleaner than the
`let _ = ...` form would have been.

**Architecture self-check:**

- *Would I use this language now?* For "small but real"
  monomorphic programs over Int, Bool, Unit, Str, and ADTs of
  those: confidently yes. Insertion sort writes out as the
  textbook recursion, no bookkeeping that the language couldn't
  do for me.
- *Did I think of everything?* The remaining wall is still
  polymorphism. Sort over `IntList` needs hand-monomorphisation;
  a generic `sort :: (a -> a -> Bool) -> List a -> List a` is
  what the language eventually wants. No new architectural cracks
  surfaced from this dogfood.
- *Visualisation:* `ail describe sort.ail.json sort` reads the
  way I'd expect a sort definition to read, with `IntList` types
  inline and the recursive call rendered cleanly.
- *KISS:* Iter 11 added 0 LOC of language semantics and 1 e2e
  test. The 250-line JSON for the example is verbose but
  mechanical — no friction once you accept that the JSON is the
  surface for LLM authors.

**Tests:** 52 green (was 51). New e2e
`insertion_sort_orders_list`. Pure addition; existing tests
untouched.

**Plan iteration 12:**

Now polymorphism. Two more dogfood programs would just keep
producing the "the language is fine for monomorphic programs"
result, which is already established. The real expressivity
unlock — and the answer to "would I use it for X?" for X that
actually needs generic data — is HM inference + let-generalisation
+ monomorphisation. Phased plan:

12a. Typechecker: introduce a `Subst` (type variable substitution)
     and unification. Thread through `synth`. At `let`, generalise
     syntactic values (lambdas) — no value-restriction subtlety
     needed yet, the MVP has no mutable refs.
12b. Codegen: at each polymorphic call site, the typechecker
     records the instantiation. Codegen walks the AST a second
     time per (def, instantiation) pair and emits a specialised
     version with the type variables substituted by concrete
     types in fn signatures.
12c. Docs + a polymorphic `id` test + a generic `map :: (a -> b)
     -> List a -> List b` rewrite of `list_map.ail.json`.

## 2026-05-07 — Iter 12a/b done: polymorphism reaches the binary

Skipped 12c's "polymorphic map" — without parameterised ADTs (which
the MVP doesn't have), the rewrite would still be over a concrete
`IntList`, defeating the purpose. So 12c becomes lighter: docs +
two new examples (`poly_id`, `poly_apply`) that prove polymorphism
end-to-end on primitive types and on fn-typed parameters. The big
test is whether *I* would use the language now for a poly-flavoured
program; the answer below.

**12a — typechecker:**

`Type::Forall { vars, body }` is now legal at top-level fn types.
Implementation is the textbook ML rule: peel the Forall when
checking the body (rigid vars go into `Env.rigid_vars` so
`check_type_well_formed` accepts them), instantiate fresh metavars
at every var-resolution site, unify on every formerly-`expect_eq`
edge.

The metavar encoding sidesteps an AST schema change: a metavar is
just `Type::Var { name: "$m<id>" }`. The `$` prefix can't collide
with source identifiers, the JSON layout doesn't shift, and module
hashes stay bit-identical (verified: `sum.ail.json` keeps
`db33f57cb329935e` / `d9a916a0ed10a3d3`). I considered adding a
new `Type::Meta` variant under `#[serde(skip)]` but that would
have pulled hashing concerns into serde; the naming convention
keeps the AST untouched.

`Subst` is a flat `BTreeMap<u32, Type>`; `unify` is the standard
occurs-check version with effects compared as a set. Constants
still reject Forall outright; ADT fields still reject vars. No
let-generalisation: lambdas inside fn bodies are checked
monomorphically against their declared types — keeps the
implementation small and matches DESIGN.md's "top-level types
must always be explicitly annotated".

**12b — codegen:**

Direct calls to a polymorphic def get monomorphised on demand.
Each unique (def, instantiation) pair emits a specialised LLVM fn
with mangling `@ail_<m>_<def>__<descriptor>`. Descriptor scheme:
`Int → I`, `Bool → B`, `Unit → U`, `Str → S`, ADT `Foo → FFoo`,
`Fn(a)→b → Fn_<a>__r_<b>`. So `id(42)` and `id(true)` produce
`@ail_poly_id_id__I` and `@ail_poly_id_id__B` side by side.

Pass 1 of `lower_workspace` now splits fn-typed defs into mono
(`module_user_fns`, LLVM-typed FnSig as before) and poly
(`module_polymorphic_fns`, full FnDef). A unified
`module_def_ail_types` carries AILang types for both, used by
the codegen-side type tracker.

The hard part was getting AILang types at call sites. The
typechecker has them but doesn't hand its annotations down (no
TIR yet). I considered three paths:
  1. Typechecker sidetable keyed by AST node ids — would need
     to assign ids deterministically, brittle.
  2. Uniform representation (everything passes as ptr/i64) —
     contradicts CLAUDE.md's "performance is extremely important".
  3. Codegen replays the type derivation locally.
Picked (3). The trade-off is duplication (`synth_arg_type`
mirrors what the typechecker already did), but it's contained
to a small recursive walk and uses the same `locals`/`extras`
shadowing pattern. Worth it for the MVP — once a TIR stage
materialises (it's still on the debt list), the duplication
collapses into a single pass.

`locals` grew from 3-tuple to 4-tuple `(name, ssa, llvm_type,
ail_type)`. Six push sites updated mechanically. Lambda capture
metadata grew the same way. `CtorRef` got `ail_fields` so match
arm bindings inherit the AILang type.

The drain phase iterates until `mono_queue` is empty —
specialised bodies can themselves invoke polymorphic defs and
queue further entries. `apply_subst_to_term` substitutes rigid
vars in `Term::Lam` annotations (the only Term arm carrying
types).

**Architecture self-check:**

- *Would I use this language now?* For monomorphic programs:
  yes (already established). For polymorphism over primitives
  and fn-typed parameters: yes — `id` and `apply` write out the
  way the textbook says they should, with no language-level
  bookkeeping leaking into the source. The `poly_apply` example
  was particularly revealing: the closure-pair ABI (Iter 8a)
  composes cleanly with monomorphisation. Specialised body of
  `apply__I_I` keeps `f` as a fn-typed local; the existing
  indirect-call path already handles the lower from there.
- *Did I think of everything?* No, two known gaps:
  1. **Polymorphic fn passed as a value** (`let f = id in f(42)`)
     fails in codegen — `resolve_top_level_fn` looks in
     `module_user_fns` only. Adding this means emitting one
     closure-pair global per instantiation, possibly via the
     same drain pass. Defer.
  2. **Higher-rank polymorphism** (`apply(id, 42)`) trips
     `unify_for_subst` which doesn't handle Forall on the param
     side. Real higher-rank polymorphism is a substantial step
     and not on the near horizon — deferred to a later iter.
- *Visualisation:* `ail manifest poly_id.ail.json` now shows
  `forall a. (a) -> a` correctly. The pretty-printer carried
  `Type::Forall` rendering since Iter 1; nothing to do.
- *KISS:* +1 typechecker file edit (~430 LOC inserted, mostly
  Subst+unify+four tests), +1 codegen extension (~600 LOC
  inserted, mostly the drain path + helpers + locals widening).
  Two new examples, two new e2e tests. Could be smaller if I
  bit the bullet on TIR; not yet worth the upfront cost.

**Tests:** 58/58 (was 56/56). Added 4 typechecker unit tests in
12a, 2 e2e tests in 12b. Hash invariant holds.

**Plan iteration 13 (queued, not started):**

The natural next step depends on what I want to use the language
for. Two candidates, in order of expected payoff:

13a. **Parameterised ADTs** — `List a`, `Maybe a`, etc. Without
     these, polymorphism is half-useful: a generic `map` still
     can't transform an `IntList` into a `BoolList`. ADT defs
     would gain a `vars: Vec<String>` field; ctor field types
     could mention them; codegen monomorphises ADT instances
     just like fns. This is the bigger expressivity unlock.
13b. **GC or arena** — every ADT box, lambda env, and closure
     pair currently leaks. For sort over an 11-element list,
     fine. For anything longer-running, required. The current
     lifetime model is "leak"; the right MVP is probably
     bumpalloc per top-level fn invocation. Could be done
     before parameterised ADTs but doesn't unlock new examples.

Leaning 13a — it's the more interesting architectural step and
makes the "polymorphic map" rewrite from the original 12c plan
finally meaningful.